Church Fathers during 4th and 5th Centuries
The fourth and fifth centuries may be regarded as the greatest centuries as far as the defense of faith is concerned. There were many heresies attacked the Church and the Church strongly defended its true faith through her faithful believers. The heroic children of the Church fought against the opponents of the Church through their teachings and literary works. We can say, without any doubt, these significant personalities are really heroes, the champions of Orthodoxy. The Church cherishes them in her heart as sources and models for Spirit inspired life.

• PAMPHILUS OF CAESAREA (+ ca AD. 309)
  Pamphilus was born at Berytus in Phoenicia. After the primary education in his native place, he went to Alexandria for higher studies. He then reached Caesarea and read books on Theology and Philosophy from the library of Origen. He became a priest and votary of Origen. He took copies of many important works and added them to Origen’s collection of books. Maximinus had started his persecutions and had imprisoned many Christians including Pamaphilus. While imprisoned in the persecution of Maximinus, he wrote an Apology for Origen, highlighting the greatness of Origen’s theology. He made many copies of the Greek Bible, which later led to the propagation of the Bible. Pamphilus’ Chief contribution was that he shaped Eusabius into a student of history who later became the father of Church history. Pamphilus suffered martyrdom by 309.
• EUSEBIUS PAMPHILUS OF CAESAREA (ca.AD 263-340)
  Eusebius, the Father of Ecclesiastical History, was born at Caesarea in Palestine about the year 263 AD. Eusebius grew up as the disciple and spiritual son of Pamphilus and he got good education and training in research. In gratitude to Pamphilus, Eusebius took his name and called himself Eusebius Pamphili implying Eusebius, son of Pamphilus. When Pamphilus died, he fled to Tyre, then to Egypt and at the end, he returned to Caesarea in 313, and there he became a bishop. It was at this time that the disputes about Arius’ heresy rocked the whole Church of the Roman Empire. Eusebius also participated in some discussions. He put forward a proposal to solve the problem. Unfortunately, it created three groups in the Church: 1) those who favoured Arius, 2) those who favoured Athanasius and 3) those who favoured Eusebius, the mediator. He enjoyed the Emperor Constantine’s friendship and it was a very influential one. He died around 340 AD.

LITERARY CONTRIBUTIONS OF EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA

• Historical writings
  • History of the Church (inter.AD 300-325): Eusebius Ecclesiastical   history is the principal source for the history of Christianity from the Apostolic Age to his own day. It contains an immense range of material on the Eastern Church, largely in the form extracts taken over bodily from earlier writers. It contains ten books. The first book is a historical analysis about Jesus Christ. The remaining books contain facts connected with the growth of Church.   Importance is given to the description about martyrs.
  • The Chronicle (ca.AD 303): It contains a summary of universal history with a table of dates. Eusebius himself gives the work the title Chronicle Rolls and epitome of the complete History of the Greeks as well as of the Barbarians. This work is divided into two parts. The first part aims at giving a chronological account of the outstanding events of each nation. The second part gives a co-ordination of these events. Throughout this work, there runs the idea that the remote history of his own time is closely connected.
• Apologetic works
  • Preparation for the Gospel (inter AD. 314-320): It contains fifteen books. The object of the work is to refute pagan polytheism and to show the superiority of Judaism, which served to prepare for the gospel, the good news of man’s salvation.
  • Proof of the Gospel (inter AD. 316-322): It contains twenty books and it answers the         Jewish objection that Christianity has accepted from Judaism, its promises and blessings, and shows that Christianity is a divine development of Judaism.
• Dogmatic works
  • Against Marcellus: He wrote two books against Marcellus of Ancyra whom he accused of being Sabellian, in 336 AD.
  • Ecclesiastical Theology: It is a work in three books, written in the year 337 or 338 AD. The work constitutes a more detailed refutation of Marcellus of Ancyra than his Against Marcellus, and it defends the true doctrine of the Logos.
• Biographical work
  The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine is an inspiring work, contains four books. The circumstances of the conversion of the persecuted Church into the royal Church and the transformation of the heathen temples into Christian Churches are especially noteworthy.

ATHANASIUS OF ALEXANDRIA

Athanasius was the great soldier of faith who fought bravely for truth. St. Basil describes him as the Divine doctor given to the Church. St. Gregory of Nazianzus depicts him as the Pillar of the Church. His life was eventful and he became famous as the fighter against Arius’ heresy.

Athanasius was born in Alexandria around AD.295. In those days, Alexandria was a great centre of learning and Athanasius was able to become familiar with the various branches of learning. He had heard a great deal about Christian heroes who had faced persecution with unflinching courage. He had also heard about the Saints who spent their lives in contact with God in the deserts and forests of Africa. Therefore, he decided to become a Christian full of saintliness, knowledge and faith. When he was boy, he once told his friends about Christian faith. The force of his words made them accept baptism. Alexander, the Metropolitan of Alexandria was surprised at this Thereafter; Athanasius studies and training were perused directly under his supervision.

Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria made Athanasius stay with him, taught him theology, logic, and physical sciences, and gave him training in spiritual life. Subsequently, Athanasius decided to have first-hand knowledge of the ascetic life of African forests and deserts. He went in search of St. Anthony with the blessings of Alexander of Alexandria. He met him and stayed with him for some time as his disciple and helper. This contact with the saint helped him produce the work Life of Anthony. Then, Athanasius returned to Alexandria. Bishop Alexander made him a deacon in 319 and appointed him as his secretary. It was at this time that he produced the works Against Pagans (Oratio Contra Gentes) and On the Incarnation.

Those were the days when Arius’ heresies were rocking the Church Athanasius realized that Arius’ denial of Christ’s divinity would ruin the basis of Christian faith. Immediately he started using his tongue and pen against Arius. He argued that the basis of Christian faith is that God saved man by incarnation, and that if Jesus Christ is not God, we had not been saved. In the end, Emperor Constantine convened the synod of Nice to resolve the issues including this.

Athanasius attended the synod as the Secretary of Bishop Alexander. The synod lasted for three months and Athanasius’ voice reverberated in it. It was very difficult to take decisions against Arius. Athanasius stood firmly for the phrase ‛ομοουσιον τω πατρι′ (of the same substance with the Father) to qualify the Son. He was not ready to accept even the phrase ‛ομοιουσιον τω πατρι′ (of the similar substance with the Father) suggested by moderates like Eusebius of Caesarea. The essential part of the Creed about faith in the Son of God was written in the Nicene Synod under the leadership of Athanasius.

In 328 AD, he succeeds Alexander in the see of Alexandria. Then he visited the Churches under his jurisdiction and confirmed the believers in true faith. The problem created by Arius was a headache to him. They influenced the Emperor and brought forward many allegations against Athanasius. At last, the exiled Arius and his companions were called back; Athanasius was accused of theft, adultery and murder. However, they failed to prove their allegations. Later he was accused of treason and false witnesses were presented against him. The allegation was that Athanasius blocked the ship bringing corn from Egypt to Byzantium. Hearing the words of the false witnesses the Emperor ordered Athanasius to be exiled to Tyre in 335 AD.

Athanasius was banished five times and brought back five times according to the disfavour or favour of the rulers who succeeded Emperor Constantine in the east and in the west. Athanasius had to spend seventeen years in banishment suffering persecution. However, he was not prepared to give up his faith or compromise it in any adversity. Once some one told him, The whole world opposes Athanasius. However, he retorted, Athanasius contra Mundum . The believers, gradually, realized the way in which Arius and his followers abused Athanasius and they prevailed upon Emperor Valence to call Athanasius back (366 AD) and entrust him with the administration of Alexandrian Church. Thereafter, Athanasius enjoyed peace in life. The great Athanasius consecrated Peter as Metropolitan to succeed him and died on 2 May 373.

LITERARY CONTRIBUTIONS OF ATHANASIUS OF ALEXANDRIA

• Apologetic works
  i) Treatise against the Pagans (Oratio Contra Gentes) is a refutation of pagan beliefs. It deals with the emptiness of pagan pantheism and it shows reasonableness and the necessity of Christianity.
  ii) Treatise on the Incarnation of the Word (Oratio de incarnatione Verbi) (ca. AD. 318). The purpose of this work is to show that the incarnation is the sole remedy for man’s fallen nature, and his single hope of restoration.
• Dogmatic works
  i) Discourses against the Arians: (inter AD. 358-362). It is the longest and the most important dogmatic work of Athanasius. It contains four books. The first book deals with the eternal origin of the Son from the Father and the substantial unity of the Son with the Father. The second and third books give an explanation to the relevant passages of the scripture, gives proves to the first book and the fourth book deals with the personal distinction of the Son from the Father.
  ii) Four letters to Serapin of Thmuis: The four letters of Athanasius to Bishop Serapion of Thmui is written at the end of 359 and early in 360 AD, They deal with the personality of the Holy Sprit, His Divinity and emanation in refutation of the pneumatomachian doctrine.
  iii) The Encyclical letter to All Bishops everywhere is Athanasius earliest extant polemical writing, belonging to about the middle of the year 339 AD. It is a call for all bishops and his fellow ministers, to assist him in rescuing his Churches from Gregory, the usurping Arian bishop.
  iv) The letter concerning the Decrees of the Council of Nicea is a genuine Athanasian work of the year 350 AD. It is a defence of Nicene terminology.
  v) Letter to Adelphius: The letter is in response to one of Adelphius to Athanasius, in which Adelphius had reported the Arian charge of creature worship against the adherents of Nicene Christology. In his reply, Athanasius makes the special point that Orthodox Christians do not worship the human nature of Christ as such, but the incarnate word.
  vi) Letter to Epictetus of Corinth (AD. 370/371). It contains the answers to the questions regarding the Holy Trinity and Christology.
• Festal letters
  It was an ancient custom for bishops of Alexandria to send festal letters after Epiphany announcing the date of Easer. In his letters, Athanasius gave instructions with regard to the fasting and about the Easter festival. These are very valuable to know the history of Early Christian practices of the Easter.
• Exegetical works
  Though Athanasius wrote commentaries on many books of the Old Testament, only the commentary on Psalms is available now.
• Ascetical writings
  Athanasius composed a biography of St. Anthony as a model of dedicated life. This work helped in the east and the west to arose the feeling of admirations for the ascetic and the monastic life.

MAIN TEACHINGS OF ATHANASIUS OF ALEXANDRIA
Teachings of Athanasius may be summed up as follows:-

• The Father, The Son and The Holy Spirit are of the same substance (‛ομοουσιος).
• Jesus Christ is perfect God and perfect Man.
• Jesus Christ was not a servant, though he took the form of a servant: though by himself he was not poor, yet he made himself poor.
• Christ is God’s high priest (Heb.6:20) and the unique mediator between God and man (Heb.8:6; 9:15; 12:24; 1 Tim.2:5), he is God’s perfect image (Col.1:15), first-born of all creation as well as responsible for all creation, truly begotten from the Father not made, and the first-born from the dead (Col.1:18).
• T0 save us from our sins, Christ the only holy one who had no sin, carried our sins for us, died for us and was resurrected for us, His sinless perfection is the witness of the Bible (Jn.8:46; 8:29).
• He was not adopted by the father, but the father adopted us in Him.
• The incarnation and death for redemption are inseparable, because redemption is possible only by the incarnation of God himself who died for our sins.
• Even though the Trinity is a mystery, it is the supreme Truth.

Athanasius’ main teaching on Christ is contained in the phrase ‛ομοουσιος (consubstantial) and in this statement He became man so that we might be made God; and He manifested Himself in the flesh, so that we might grasp the idea of the unseen father; and he endured the insolence of men, so that we might receive the inheritance of immortality (On Incarnation 54:3). The doctrine of salvation would have been in danger, if the heresy of Arius had gained momentum. Athanasius found in the Incarnation and Crucifixion a single act of God in His attempt to redeem humanity. He refused to see them as two different actions. Athanasius taught about the Divinity of the Holy Spirit and His emanation from God. If The Holy Spirit were not God, it would not be possible for human beings to become divine.

4. BASIL THE GREAT OF CAESAREA

The three great lights who are so often referred to as the Three Cappadocians are Basil the   Great of Caesarea, his friend Gregory of Nazianzus, and his own brother, Gregory of Nyssa. Basil the Great is the senior venerable member among them. He was the first ascetic leader of the Eastern (Greek) Church tradition. Also called Second Athanasius, he proved his personality not only in the ascetic movement but also in the realms of Church administration and theology.

Basil was one among the ten children of a rich family of Caesarea in Cappadocia around AD 330. His father, Baselius, was known, as a scholar and eminent writer throughout Cappadocea. His mother Emmelia was the daughter of a martyr. Of the ten children in the family, three became bishops: Basil himself, made bishop of Caesarea in 370, Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, and Peter, bishop of Sebasty. The eldest sister Macarena became a nun and started a nunnery.

As a student in Athens, Basil first met Gregory of Nazianzus, joining with him in a friendship so close that in his eulogy to basil in 381 AD, Gregory could you say that they were one soul with two bodies. In 359, he became a monk. He traveled through Syria and Egypt to study the life of monks. He came back, sold his property and other belongings and gave the money to the poor. He started a hermitage on the bank of the river Iris. It was a delectable piece of land. The number of hermits gradually increased and Basil formulated a few rules for them. During this time, Gregory of Nazianzus visited him and together they codified Origen’s Spiritual exhortations under the title Philokalia. They also reformed and enlarged the rules for monks. By this time, Eusebius (not the historian Eusebius) of Caesarea heard about Basil and invited him to be his assistant. Basil agreed. Eusebius ordained him a priest and gave him the responsibility of the diocesan administration. Basil was to him a good councilor, a skillful helper, an expounder the Scripture and interpreter of his duties.

After the death of Eusebius, Basil became the bishop of Caesarea. As the Metropolitan, he assumed the charge of administration of Caesarea and the whole of Pontus. Basil emphasized two things in administration: – protection of true faith and social activities. He fought against Arius’ heresy, Macedonianism and Apollinarianism.He found many abuses to be corrected including the simony   and the laxity ordination, and faced a good deal of opposition. Finally, he brought the clergy of Caesarea into a high standard of life. He undertook great social relief works. Among the Church Fathers, there seems to be none who gave more importance to social activities than Basil did. He established hospitals, Rest houses and centre to give training in jobs. He also started institution to help those who suffer from famine and poverty. After a life of hard works, he died on 1 January 379.

Literary Contributions of Basil the Great

Basil’s works may be classified as Books supporting faith (dogmatic works), Works about the Bible, those related to ascetic life and homilies, letters etc.

a) Dogmatic works:
 All his dogmatic works are opposing the existing heresies such as Arianism, Eunomianism, Macedonianism and Apollinarianism. His Against Eunomius (inter AD. 363-365) or, it is called in Greek, Refutation of the Apology of the Impious Eunomius, in three books, is the earliest of his dogmatic writings. It deals with the essence, attributes of God, the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father, and refutes the objections of the heretic against the divinity of the Holy Spirit. His treatise the Holy Spirit (De Spiritu Sancto), was written in 375 AD, treats the consubstantiality of the Son and the Holy Spirit with the Father and defends the Doxology Glory be to the Father with the Son together with the Holy Spirit. This work was very important for the preparation of the creed in the council of Constantinople (381) regarding the person of the Holy Spirit

b) Exegetical works:
Basil’s exegetical writings are confined entirely to homilies, and they are not purely literary homilies, but his actual preaching.  Among them, homilies on Genesis, on the Psalms, and on Isaiah are very important.
c) Ascetical writings:
(i) A group of Ascetical which contains three treatises- the life of monk as a soldier to Christ, the excellence monastic life, the duties of a monk (ii) Moralia:- a group of 80 rules or instruction to the monks. (iii) Two special Monastic rules: – the first contains 55 longer rules and the second contains 313 shorter rules. Both are in question and answer form. They set forth the rules of the monastic life and their application to the daily life. They were received universally in the East and they survive to the present day.
d) Homilies, Letters and Liturgical works.
The 24 homilies of Basil show that he was one of the greatest pastors and orators of the Christianity. The letters of Basil are very highly esteemed. They show the purity of his mind, the great and sympathetic character of his life and the perfection of his writing style. The liturgical text of Basil survives in the Greek original and there are oriental translations.

Teachings of Basil the Great
The Holy Trinity is the main subject of his dogmatic writings. He opposed all those who regarded the Holy Spirit as subordinate to the Son. His teachings insist that the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit are of the same essence. In order to explain the unity and Trinity of God he used two philosophical terms- Ousia and Hypostasis.

The existence of the Father is not from anything (from nothing). The existence of the Son and the Holy Spirit is derived eternally from the Father. The distinction property of the Father is that he is ungenerated. The distinction property of the Son is that He is generated and the Holy Spirit is that He is preceded from the Father. The Father is having no cause for His existence. The son and the Holy Spirit have the Father as the source of their existence.

Basil stressed the full and perfect divinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit against the theories of Arians, Eunomians, and Macedonians. At the same time, he clearly rejected Apollinarianism, which denied the perfect humanity of our Lord Jesus Christ. He related the union of the full humanity with the full divinity as a part of the work of Redemption. According to him, if the humanity is not perfect with the human rational Soul then there was no salvation to the human beings.

5. GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS

Gregory was born around AD 330 at Arianzuz in Cappadocea. His father was Gregorios who was the Bishop of Nazianzus [In those days there were Bishops who led family life]. His mother, Nonna, was an ideal woman. Gregory says in one of his speeches about the profound influence his mother had on him. “My mother dedicated me to God even before I was born”.

Gregory was educated first at Caesarea in Cappadocea and later at Caesarea in Palestine, Alexandria and Athens. He became acquainted with Basil for the first time when he was studying language and literature at Caesarea in Cappadocea. They kept that warm and intimate friendship until the end of their lives. When Gregory returned to his native place after completing his education, Basil invited him to his hermitage on the bank of river Iris in Pontus. The time Gregory spent there with Basil forms the priceless moments of their spiritual life. There both together codified Philokalia and rules for hermits.
When Gregory returned from Pontus, his father invited him to serve the Church and to help him in his works. Probably, at Christmas 361, his father Gregorios, the bishop of Nazianzus, ordained him priest and it was because of the insistence of the people. Once he was ordained, Gregory started thinking seriously about his calling. He did not have the courage to remain where he was and do his duties. He again went back to Pontus and renewed his acquaintance with Basil there. After some times, he returned to Nazianzus and helped his father in Church affairs. His fame began to spread everywhere. He was a deep scholar who led a meek, ideal and simple life. All liked him. His father died in 374. His mother died soon afterwards and his brother Caecerus and sister Georgonia had already died. After his father’s death, he became the administrator of Nazinzuz. However, in 375, due to his great bodily sufferings, he resigned the administration of Nazianzus and retired to Selucia. There, in 379, there in he heard with great grief the news of Basil’s death.

His calm life was interrupted again by a summons to the active life. In 379, the believers of Constantinople invited him and he went there. At that time, most of the believers in Constantinople were the followers of Arius. He lived in a small house, which he turned into a church, and from here in the space of two years, he restored the real Orthodox ascendancy ao all obstacles and perils. Gradually circumstances became favourable to him. Emperor Theodosius gave him the important churches of Constantinople, including the Cathedral. It was when he was serving as the bishop of Constantinople that Emperor Theodosius convened the second Universal Council in 381.The tissle for authority is always there. Some opposition cropped up about Gregory’s position in the Church. He gladly abandoned his position and returned to Nazianzus, which he directed until its bishop Eulalius was appointed in 383. After he lived at Arianzuz, he devoted to literary works and to the cherished life quiet asceticism. He died in 389.

Literary Contributions

Gregory is one of the great Church Fathers, and one of the greatest orators of Christian antiquity. He alone, among the Fathers is given St.John’s title, The Theologian. That appellation applies to Gregory because, it was he who dealt authoritatively with God; who is the Word.

1. Orations
The greater part of Gregory’s orations, the collection of which numbers forty five items, belongs to the years 379 to 381 AD, five theological orations which are the most perfect of his orations. They have won for him the title Theologian, i.e., defender of Godhead. They were delivered against Eunomians and Macedonians. He treated of the existence, nature and attributes of God, Unity of Nature in the three Divine Persons, Divinity of the Son, reply to objections, and refutation to the objections against the Divinity of the Holy Spirit.
2. Discourses on special occasions
The most important among the discourses on special occasions are the funeral speeches he made when Basil dead and about priesthood. (In defence of my flight to Pontus).
3. Letters
The letters, about 243, are model of clarity and brevity. Valued in general for their autobiographical details, a few of them have also a considerable theological importance. The most famous are the letters number 101 and 102 to the priest Cledonius, which deal with the Christological doctrine. The Ephesus Council of 431 highly praised the letter number 101 and published a lengthy extract from this letter.
4. Poems
Gregory’s poems belong mostly to the late years of his life when he was in retirement at Arianzuz. The collection numbers 507 items arranged in different sections. a) Theological poems, subdivided into dogmatic and moral, and b) Historical poems, subdivided as about him and about others. There are also numerous epitaphs and epigrams, and a drama entitled Christ Suffering.

Main teachings of Gregory of Nazianzus

Gregory declared that the doctrine of Trinity is the heart of true Christian faith and of all religion. He professed his faith in the essential unity of Three Divine hypostasis. The Godhead is worshipped in the Trinity and the Trinity is gathered into a Unity. Trinity has a royal power, sharing a single throne and a single glory, supernatural, uncreated, invisible, untouchable and incomprehensible. Against Macedonians and Eunomians, Gregory stressed the Divine status of the Son and the Holy Spirit. The  Holy Spirit of God must liberate human spirit from its earthly fetters and the ultimate goal of the Christian life is some day to become wholly Divine.

In his Christological teaching, Gregory was mainly concerned the human nature of our Lord Jesus Christ against the teaching of Apollinarianism. Apollinarius denied the human nature of Christ in order to strengthen his relation with the Godhead. Against this, Gregory stressed the complete humanity of our savior along with His complete divinity. According to Gregory, the union between the Godhead and perfect humanhood is very necessary for the perfect redemption of humanity.

In the beginning, God existed alone. Although God existed in three Persons, the three Persons are not treated as three gods, these three exist as alone. Gregory attributes the first creation the heavenly and angelic powers. According to Gregory, the creation is an overflow of Goodness or the springing out of spontaneous Divine love. Creation is the manifestation of God’s will, not of His essence. His infinite goodness and purpose to make all creatures participants in Him with delight and so He Himself might enjoy His work. Although God is absolute Creator, creation is not eternal, but ex nihilo, since it is the product of God’s will and not of His substance. According to the creation account of Gen.1:26, man was created after the deliberation of the Trinity’s Council. On the sixth day, after the creation of the animals, God said, let us make man in our own image and and in our likeness. It seems that God talked Himself and the Persons of the Trinity were in consort. This was a unique style of creation, since not even the angels were created in the image of God. This is because man is the centre of Creation.

Works and Contributions of Gregory of Nyssa
His works are replete with literary elegance and spiritual vigour. They can be classified into five groups: (i) works interpreting the Bible (exegetical), (ii) books supporting faith (dogmatic), (iii) spiritual and ascetic works, (iv) discourses and (v) letters.

1. Exegetical
He followed the allegorical interpretation of the school of Alexandria in his Biblical works. The most important of the Biblical interpretation are his work on the creation of man that on the Life of Moses and his commentary on the Cantacle of Cantacles. The other works are The Beatitudes consisting of eight homilies on Mtt.5:1-10, The Lords Prayer, consists of five homilies, Homilies on Ecclesiastes, consists of eight homilies and commentaries on 1 and 2 Kings and on Psalms.

2. Dogmatic writings:
a) The Great Catechism, written soon after the year 383 AD, treated the chief dogmas of Christianity. It contains the fundamental doctrines on the Trinity of the Godhead, the Redemption of humankind through the incarnation of the Logos, and the personal acceptance of redeeming grace through Baptism and Eucharist.

b) Against Eunomius (inter AD 380/384), polemical dogmatic work contains thirteen books.
c) Refutation of the views of Apollinarius (post. AD 385), in this work, Gregory combats the Apollinarist notions that the body of Christ came down from heaven, and that in Christ the place of human spirit, nous, is supplied by the Divine Logos.

d) Dialogue on the soul and Resurrection (AD 379/380). The dialogue is the conversation that Gregory had with Macarena as she lay dying. In the course of their conversation, Macarena declares her views on the soul, death, immortality, resurrection and the restoration of all things. (Returning from the synod of Antioch at the end of 379 AD Gregory went to visit his elder sister Macarena, who was superioress of the women’s monastery of Iris. He found ill, and by evening of the first day after his arrival, she was dead)

e) On the Untimely Deaths of Infants: This short work belongs to Gregory’s later years, and is addressed to Hierius, the Prefect of Cappadocea. The treatise tries to find an explanation for the deaths of infants in God’s fore knowledge, coupled with His mercy.

3. Ascetical works

a) Virginity, belongs to the period after Basil’s consecration as Bishop of Caesarea. It states of real virginity is one of the virtues.

b) Against those who Resent Correction. This work, known also as the De castigatione or Chastisement belongs to Gregory’s ascetical writings. It was occasioned by the fact that some of his flock so resented his correction that they left the Church.

4. Discourses
Besides the homilies, which make up the commentaries, there is also a small collection of discourses (orations and sermons), embracing liturgical sermons, panegyrics on martyrs and saints, funeral orations, encomia, moral sermons and dogmatic sermons.

5. Letters
There are 29 letters in number
Main teachings of Gregory of Nyssa
Gregory of Nyssa, the most intellectual of the trio, was more interested in philosophy and theological speculation. He was also a mystic and a strong defender of Orthodoxy. He reconciled the Unity with the Trinity. He lays all stress on one point that the distinction of the three Divine Persons and at the same times Their unity. Men must be regarded as many because each of them acts independently; the Godhead is one because Father never acts independently of the Son or the Holy Spirit. The Divine action begins from the Father, proceeds through the Son and is completed in the Holy Spirit. None of the Persons possesses a separate operation of His own, but one identical energy through all Three.

About incarnation, Gregory taught that, God came to be in human nature, but the manner of the union is a mysterious and inexplicable as the union between body and soul in man. The union between Godhead and humanity is unbreakable and designed last forever. (J.N.D.Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p.267)

According to Gregory, the real issue is the redemption of man, i.e., the elevations, purification, and return of the individual soul to its Creator and Lord Christ is always at the centre. The only begotten God Himself raised up the man mingled with Himself, separating the soul from the body and uniting both again and thus He brought about the common salvation of our nature. Hence, He is called the Author, (Acts.3:15) of life.  In his treatise on Virginity, he says as follows when we remove the unnatural from us, we come back to the virtuous state that ends happily. This means that we come back to the state in which we were created in the beginning. This state bears similarity to God. However, the attainment of that state is beyond our power and ability. It is only the gift of God’s generosity. He gave it to us during the first creation. What we can attain through our effort is only this: wash away the stains of sin and allow the soul to shine in pristine beauty. He had made profound philosophical analysis of human freedom. According to him, human freedom highlights that God gave man the possibility of becoming divine when he was created. The inner meaning of the fact that man is created in God’s image is that man is given partnership in God’s freedom and goodness.

According to Gregory, all of the Scriptures are concerned with the spiritual experiences. Whether it is a matter of the New Testament or Old Testament texts, he finds the same ideals in them of purification, miraculous sanctification and blessed communion with God. The worship in the Church occupies a large space in his writings and teachings. He emphasizes the importance of the rule of law and redeeming action of the Sacraments especially Baptism. He was the first Christian theologian clearly to define the concept of the priest, emphasizing the Sacramental transforming power of his consecration and his distinguishing role of liturgists.

7. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM

John Chrysostom succeeded Gregory of Nazianzus as the Patriarch of Constantinople. Both had brilliant personality. Nevertheless, both failed to please the envious and those in authority; hence, they had to give up their positions. The life history of John Chrysostom is the history of his unflinching fight against injustice.

John Chrysostom was born at Antioch, the capital of Syria in AD 344 or 347. His parents were Christians. His father, Secuntus was a high-ranking army officer, and his mother Anthusa was a very god-fearing woman. His earliest education came from his mother who was widowed at the age of twenty. John studied philosophy under Andragathius and rhetoric under Lebanius, a famous pagan sophist and rhetorician. When John was about eighteen years of age, he met Meletius, the Bishop of Antioch. He learned Christian faith from Miletius and received baptism in 369. Miletius directed him to the school of Diodore of Tarsus, who indicated in the literal exegesis of the School of Antioch. Here he met and formed a lifelong friendship with Theodore of Mopsuestia. After his education John lived an ascetical life, but his mother begged him not leave her alone. After his mother’s death in 370, he went to a mountain near Antioch and he spent four years there and two years in cave in ascetic practices and study. During this latter period, he never lay down to sleep, night or day, his gastro-intestinal system refused anymore to function properly and the cold and dampness caused malfunctioning of his kidneys. Therefore, he was forced to leave the solitary life and returned to Antioch. In 381 AD he was ordained a deacon by Miletius, and in 386 AD a priest by Flavian, the successor of Miletius. Under Flavian John was assigned for twelve years as preacher in the main church of Antioch. It is to his preaching and because of his eloquence that he is called Chrysostom, which means golden mouthed. The Emperor of Constantinople also came to know about him.

When Nectarios, the Patriarch of Constantinople died in 397, many Bishops wished to succeed him. Because of this problem, Emperor Arcadius elected John Chrysostom as the Patriarch of Constantinople. Theophilus of Alexandria objected but he himself gave leadership to the consecration ceremony under the instruction of the Emperor. After his consecration, John Chrysostom began to reform the Church and aroused a great opposition. Empror Arcadius was a wick, norrow minded man, and he was completely under the control of his minister, the Eunech Eutropius. Eutropius was unprincipled, various and ambitious man. Chrysostom fearlessly opposed Eutropius. Eudoxia, the empress, was a woman of vanity and she became a bitter enemy of Chrysostom. Although Chrysostom usually peaceful and patient, his zeal of God, Church and justice often led him to blunt speech and action offensive to those in high places. In 401 AD at a synod in Ephesus, he deposed six bishops as guilty of simony, with the result that all forces opposed to him, consolidated in a united effort to destroy him.

Theophilus’ dislike of John turned to an active hatred when he had to come personally to Constantinople in 402 AD to answer charges brought against him by the desert monks of Nitria, before a synod presided over by Chrysostom. Theophilus had expelled some about fifty desert monks on ground of their Origenist view in theology. In the mean time, the enemies of John falsified the sermons of Chrysostom and spread the news that he had slandered the empress. John Chrysostom often preached on the vanity and luxury of woman, and Eudoxia was easily convinced that Chrysostom had aimed at her. Arcadius, influenced by Eudoxia and Eutropius urged Theophilus to hold a synod and depose John Chrysostem. Theophilus called a synod at Oak, near Chalcedon in 403 together with thirty-six bishops and depose John Chrysostom. Arcadius then expelled John Chrysostom to Bithynia. However, on the day of exile a terrible earthquake occurred which filled the palace with fear. Suddenly, John Chrysostom was called back. His return was a great event.

The uneasy peace lasted only two months. The empress erected a statue of herself near the Cathedral, and the noise of the celebrations interrupted the liturgical ceremonies in the Church. From his pulpit, John Chrysostom attacked it bitterly and he requested the city prefect to put an end to the disturbance. Eudoxia considered it as a public insult. The emperor ordered him to retire and he refused. The emperor then forbade him the use of any church. On the Easter Vigil of 404 AD John Chrysostom and his followers went to the place where some 3000 catechumens assembled to be baptized. The soldiers broke up the service and the baptismal water flow with blood. A few days after, to avoid more bloodshed, Chrysostom left secretely. On June 9, 404 AD, Chrysostom was ordered into exile to Cucusus in Lesser Armenia, where he remained three years. Arsacius first and then Atticus succeeded in Constantinople, but the people who were supporting John Chrysostom did not accept them. Eudoxia died a few months after. From Cucusus John Chrysostom maintained contact with his flock and with Antioch. When his enemies saw that his followers still visited him, they compelled the emperor to send him to a remote place, Pityus, on the eastern shore of Black Sea in order to avoid his contact. Toward the end of June 407, the soldiers forced him to walk bare headed and bare foot in sun and rain to Pityus. Worn out with hardship and fever he died en rout at Comana in the Pontus, uttering the words Glory to God for all things, on September 14, 407 AD. Later his mortal remains were brought to Constantinople during the rule of Theodocius II under royal escort, and buried the church of the Apostles.

Literary contributions of John Chrysostom

No one else among the Greek Fathers has so large a body of extant writings as has John Chrysostom. It may be divided into four groups. They are Exegetical, Discourses, Moral and Ascetical treatises, and Letters.
Exegetical
i) Homilies on Genesis: There are extant two series of Chrysostom’s Homilies on Genesis. The first series consists of only nine homilies, which are preached at Antioch in Lent of 386 AD shortly after his ordination to the priesthood. The second series of Homilies on Genesis consists of sixty-seven homilies and comprises a complete commentary on that book.
ii) Homilies on the Gospel of John:  It contains eighty-eight in number. Probably they belong to the year 391 AD.
iii) Homilies on the Gospel of Mathew: The ninety Homilies on the Gospel of Mathew were delivered at Antioch, probably in the year 390.
iv) Homilies on the Epistle to the Romans: It is probable, were preached soon after the series on the Gospel of John, about the year 391 AD. It is extant in thirty-two homilies, and is generally regarded as the finest surviving patristic commentary on that book.
v) Homilies on the first Epistle to the Corinthians: It contains forty-four homilies. It was composed at Antioch, probably about the year 392. In addition to the connected series of forty-four homilies on First Corinthians there is a set of three homilies on 1 Cor.7:1ff.
vi) Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians: It belongs to John’s year at Antioch, i.e., before about 393 AD.
vii) Homilies on the Epistle to the Philipians: It contains fifteen in number, and belongs to his Antiochian period or in Constantinople, 398-404 AD.
vii) Homilies on the second Epistle to Timothy: It contains ten homilies, and belongs to 392 AD.
viii) Explanations of the Psalms: It is a series of fifty-eight homilies, and is written about 396 AD.
ix) Homilies on the Epistle to the Hebrews: Chrysostom’s series of thirty-four homilies belongs to his last years in Constantinople.
x) Homilies on the second Epistle to the Thessalonians: Besides eleven homilies on first Thessalonians, Chrysostom wrote also a course of five homilies on second Thessalonians. Both series belong to his Episcopal years in Constantinople, between 398 and 404.
Discourses
a) Homilies on the Incident of the Statues: They are twenty-one in number and are the most famous of Chrysostom’s works. They belong to the year 387 AD, when Chrysostom was official preacher in Antioch. These wonderful discourses consolidated his reputation as a golden-mouthed orator.
b) The Proof that Christ is God: Its Latin title is Against the Jews and Pagans that Christ is God. It occupies itself with proving Christ’s divinity based on the fulfillment of prophecy. It was written immediately after Chrysostom’s ordination to the deaconate, in 381 AD.
c) Homilies against the Anomians and on the Incomprehensible Nature of God: It contains twelve homilies.

3. Moral and Ascetical Treatises

They are numerous and all of them deal with monastic, ascetical and apologitical topics. The most not worthy are the treatise on The Priesthood and Baptismal Catechises.

Letters
There are 238 letters extend from the time of his exile. Seventeen among them are very important to know his doctrine.

Main teachings of John Chrysostom
John Chrysostom did not enter openly into theological conflict of his time. His teacher Diodore of Tarsus is said to be the father of the so-called Nestorianism but Chrysostom was not at all happy with the Christological teaching of Diodore. Without any taint of heresy, Chrysostom gives some of his thoughts through commentaries. He stressed that the essence of the Father and the Son is same, Christ says, “If anyone sees Me, he sees the Father (Jn.14:9)” If He were another essence He would not say this (Hom.Jn.74,1).

He says, the Word become flesh with out having any change or mixing in their natures, and there is no separation. When you hear that “the word was made flesh (Jn.1:14),” do not be disturbed nor disheartened… Why does he use the expression “was made?”  To stop the mouths of the heretics. For since there are some who are saying that the whole of the Incarnation  was a phantasm and a show and an illusion he put down that was made to take away their blasphemy beforehand, intending to show thereby not a change of essence , perish the thought, but the assumption of true flesh… For by union  and by conjunction  God the Word and the flesh are one, not in any confused way, nor by an obliteration of essences, but by a certain union that is indescribable and beyond understanding… There was no possibility of raising (our fallen nature) again, unless He that fashioned it in the beginning stretch forth His hand to it and remold it anew, by rebirth through water and Spirit (Hom.Jn.11,1&2).
Chrysostom teaches that the Word has become flesh and the Master has assumed the form of a servant that men have been made sons of God. The humanity stood condemned to death by God, and was indeed virtually dead; but Christ has delivered us by handing Himself over to death. Christ has saved us by His unique sacrifice. He has done this by substituting himself in our place. Though he was righteousness itself, God allowed him to be condemned as a sinner and to die as one under a curse, transferring to Him not only the death that we owed but our guilt as well. Moreover, the sacrifice of such a victim was of surpassing efficacy, being sufficient to save the entire race. He died for all men, to save all, as far as He was concerned; for that death was a fair equivalent in exchange for the destruction of all.

John Chrysostom uses the term for the sacraments. For him is not meant by what we see and believe but we see something and we believe something else, also, it is incomprehensible to us. He also applied this word to both Incarnation and Crucifixion. He states the essence of Holy Eucharist is the uniting of the communicants with Christ, and so with one another, because the Bread is one, we, the many, are in one Body (1 Cor.10:7). Why do I say communion? He says, for we are that very body. What is the Bread? The Body of Christ! What we do they become who are partakers therein? The Body of Christ! Not many bodies, but one Body. For just as the bread, consisting of many grains, is made one, and the grains are no longer evident, but still exist, though their distinction is not apparent in their conjunction. So too are we conjoined to each other and to Christ. For you are not nourished by one Body while someone else is nourished by another Body, rather, all are nourished by the same Body (Hom. 1 Cor. 24, 2). The union is complete, and eliminates all separation (Hom. 1 Thim.15, 4). Thus, we feed on Him at Whom angels gaze with trembling… and become one body and flesh with Christ. (Hom. Mat.82, 5)

In his homily on Acts of Apostles, Chrysostom explains that only through the power of Holy Spirit can the baptismal water produce its effect (1, 5). The seal of The Holy Spirit in baptism is a distinctive sign like the badge worn by the soldiers (Hom.2 Cor.3, 7). The Christian is sealing with The Holy spirit corresponds to the sealing of the Jew with the rite of circumcision (Hom. Eph .2, 2). Christian is having Christ in himself because of baptism and so being assimilated to Him. Stepping out of the sacred bath, the catechumen is clothed with light and, fully regenerated; enjoy possession of justice and holiness (Comm. Gal.3, 5).

In the Genesis passage, the very hand of God, created entirely incorruptible and immortal, shaped man, there they had no need even for the protective covering of garments. For when sin and disobedience had not yet entered upon the scene, they were clothed with glory from above, which is why they were not ashamed. Nevertheless, their transgression of the command shame did enter in, and the knowledge of their nakedness (15, 4). Adam knew the meaning of the divine command and the penalties attached to its violation, and he enjoyed perfect freedom (16, 5).

About priesthood, though the service of a priest takes place on earth it should be considered as taking place in heaven. This holy service was established not by man, angel or any other creation but by the Holy Spirit. He calls who are earthly for the service of the angels. Hence, we should be holy like the heavenly hosts to perform the holy rites. When you see before your very eyes the Saviour as a sacrifice, when you see the participants in the sacrifice wrapped in Divine glory caused by sacrificial blood, how can you think that you are on earth? This miracle is due to God’s grace for man. The one who is with the Father in Heaven is at the same time being embraced in our hands.

Priests have received a power that God has given neither to angels nor to archangels. It was said to them, whatsoever you shall bind upon earth shall be bond in heaven, and whatsoever you shall loose shall be loosed (Mt. 18:18). Temporal rulers have indeed the power of binding, but they can bind only the body. Priests, however, can bind with a bond, which pertains to the soul itself, and transcends the very heavens. Whatever priests do here on earth, God will confirm in heaven, just as the master ratifies the decisions of his servants (The Priesthood 3, 5, 182 & 183).

Have you sinned? Go into church and wipe out your sin. As often as you might fall down in the market place, you pick yourself up again. So too as often as you sin, repent your sin. Do not despair. Even if you sin a second time, repent a second time.  Even if you are in extreme old age and have sinned, go in repent! For here is a physician’s office, not a courtroom. Not a place where punishment of sin is exacted, but where the forgiveness of sin is granted.  (Homilies on Penance 3, 4).

In matters related to Church disputes, two things influenced him much. 1. It was Alexandria alone that once gave chief contributions to the study of Christian theology. Alexandria had its own continuous thought too. It was at this time that another centre of Christian thought, with several differences developed in Antioch. Gradually there occurred disputes, feuds and rivalry among Christian thinkers because of these two basic traditions. This rivalry, in a way, influenced the attitudes of various groups to the heresies. The toughness that Cyril showed to Nestorius was to some extent due to this rivalry. 2. When Constantinople grew into a Second Rome, the position of the Patriarch of Constantinople also was raised accordingly. As a result, the importance of Alexandria was reduced. It was the anxiety caused by this development that the Alexandrian Patriarchs Theophilus and Cyril had against John Chrysostom. What we see in the life of Cyril is the hard attempt to reestablish the vanishing glory of Alexandria.

The beginning of Nestorianism and of the theological quarrel that has left its very distinct mark on all subsequent Christianity even to our own time dates to as early as 429 AD, when Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople preached that Mary should not be called the or Mother of God, but the, Mother of Christ. Eusebius, challenged him still a layman but afterwards Bishop of Dorylaeum, who posted on the doors of the Hagia Sophia a rebuttal accusing Nestorius of Adoptionism of Paul of Samosata. Eusebius sent copies of Nestorius’ sermons to Celestine, Pope of Rome. Cyril objected the position of Nestorius in a Festal Letter and in an encyclical letter to the monks of Egypt. Pope Celestine of Rome, hearing this news convened a Synod at Rome in 430, condemned the teaching of Nestorius, and warned him of deposition if he will not profess the Orthodoxy. In Alexandria Cyril called a Synod in November 430, at which Nestorius was condemned. Cyril then wrote his famous third letter to Nestorius, to which he attached twelve anathemas for Nestorius’ signature. Nestorius’ reply was to counter-charge Cyril with being an Apollinarist, and he invited the Emperor to call a council to settle the matter.

The third Ecumenical Council met in June 431. Emperor Theodosius II ordered Cyril to preside the Council. Pope Celestine sent three delegates from Rome. Memnon of Ephesus assisted Cyril of Alexandria. The Council started long after the appointed date because John of Antioch and his delegates did not arrive in time. After a period of waiting, the council started in the absence of John of Antioch. Nestorius refused to attend; and in the opening session, one hundred and fifty-three bishops were present. The first day itself, i.e., on 22 June 431 the Council declared, the letters and anathemas of Cyril to Nestorius were Orthodox and they condemned Nestorius as a heretic, deposed and excommunicated. Finally, more than two hundred bishops signed to the deposition of Nestorius. The council proclaimed Holy Virgin Mary as. Four days after the first session John of Antioch and his delegates arrived at the city. They protested the Council is having proceeded without them and opened their own synod and deposed Cyril and Memnon. On July 17, the fifth session of Ephesus deposed and excommunicated John. The Emperor Theodosius II recognized and confirmed both assemblies, and imprisoned both Cyril and Nestorius. Cyril was in Prison for almost three months. Then, the Emperor condemned Nestorius and reinstated Cyril. Nestorius was sent back to his monastery in Antioch, while Cyril was permitted to return to Alexandria as Patriarch. However, reconciliation effected between Cyril and John and they together signed a new Creed (Formula of Reunion). Union of the two natures, without mixing and without division and Divine Maternity of Mary was main content of the Creed. Thus, a partial union was achieved in 433 AD. The last fifteen years of Nestorius’ life were spent in exile in Arabia, Libya, and finally in the desert of Upper Egypt. Cyril took great care in protecting the true faith. He also spent a lot of time in biblical studies. Gradually he withdrew from his eventful life and died in 444.